Aromatherapy is a term coined by French chemist René Maurice Gattefossé in the 1920's to describe the practice of using essential oils taken from plants, flowers, roots, seeds, etc., in healing. The term is a bit misleading, since the aromas of oils, whether natural or synthetic, are not themselves therapeutic. It is the "essence" of the oil, i.e., its chemical properties, which give it whatever therapeutic value the oil might have. Furthermore, only in some cases of aromatherapy are vapors used. In most cases, the oil is rubbed onto the skin or ingested in a tea or other liquid. And some aromatherapists consider cooking with herbs a type of aromatherapy. Aromas are used to identify the oils, to determine adulteration, and to stir the memory, but not to directly bring about a cure or healing.
The healing power of essential oils is the main attraction in aromatherapy. It is also the main question for the skeptic. What evidence is there for all the claims made by aromatherapists regarding the various healing properties of oils? Very little, I'm afraid. Most of the support for the healing power of such substances as tea tree oil are in the form of anecdotes like the following:
In the plane on my way to India [from Europe] a few years ago, my index finger began throbbing violently. A rose thorn had lodged in it two days before, as I pruned my roses. It was now turning septic. I straight away applied tea tree oil undiluted to the finger. By the time I arrived in Bangalore, the swelling had almost gone and the throbbing had stopped. (Daniele Ryman, Aromatherapy)
This kind of post hoc reasoning abounds in the literature of alternative health care. What would be more convincing would be some control studies.
When references are made to other aromatherapists, they are usually of the following type:
Marguerite Maury prescribed rose for frigidity, ascribing aphrodisiac properties to it. She also considered rose a great tonic for women who were suffering from depression.(Daniele Ryman, Aromatherapy, p, 205)
Such testimonials are never met with skepticism or even curiosity as to what evidence there is for them. They are just passed on as if they were articles of faith.
The only kind of research aromatherapists seem interested in is in reading what other aromatherapists have said or believed about plants or oils. The practitioners and salespersons of aromatherapeutic products seem singularly uninterested in scientific testing of their claims, many of which are empirical and could be easily tested. Of course, there are many aromatherapists who make intestable claims, such as claims regarding how certain oils will affect their "subtle body," bring balance to their chakra, restore harmony to their energy flow, or contribute to spiritual growth. For example, Val Lariviere, self-proclaimed aromatherapist, say that
At its most basic, the practice of Aromatherapy is the use of essential oils to restore or enhance mental, emotional, physical or spiritual health. It is about balance in the same way that illness is about imbalance. It is the return to the centre, the essence of health.
Such claims are essentially intestable. They are part of New Age mythology and can't really engender any meaningful discussion or debate. When aromatherapists get into professional debates about empirical matters it is generally over such matters as whether natural oils are superior to synthetic ones, though even here references to scientific studies of the issue are sought in vain. The way aromatherapist Daniele Ryman, a defender of natural oils, treats the subject of "lavender" is typical. In her book,Aromatherapy, she gives some botanical and historical information about the plant, including a claim by Matthiole, a 16th century botanist, that lavender is a panacea which can cure epilepsy, apoplexy and mental problems. She tells us that the principal constituents of lavender are alcohols such as borneol, geraniol and linalool; esters such as geranyle and linalyl; and terpents such as pinene and limonene. Lavender also contains a high percentage of phenol, a strong antiseptic and antibiotic. She also notes that while many essential oils are very toxic, lavender is one of the least toxic of all oils. Then she tells us that lavender is "the oil most associated with burns and healing of the skin." She says lavender is "very effective in treating cystitis, vaginitis, and leucorrhea." Furthermore, as an herbal tea, lavender "is also good as a morning tonic for convalescents, as a digestive after meals, for rheumatic conditions, and at the first appearance of a cold or flu." To prevent varicose veins, Ryman advises that you "massage the legs with an oil consisting of 3 drops cypress oil, 2 drops each of lavender and lemon oil, and 1 ounce of soy oil." (p. 143). Nowhere does she give any indication that anyone, anywhere has done any control studies with lavender to test any of these claims. Now, it's true that expressions such as 'very effective' and 'is good' are not very precise, but they are not complete weaslers like 'helps' (which is what she says lavender in your bath will do for cellulite). And 'most associated' with burns doesn't actually say that it will do any good for burns. Still, I think these claims can be made precise enough to test, though I doubt if Ryman or most other aromatherapists have any interest in doing such tests.
For some reason, Ryman doesn't say much about lavender's use to reduce stress in her chapter on lavender. However, in a section on "Insomnia" she says that "lavender is a gentle narcotic, recommended for mental and physical strain." There has been a study done, not mentioned by Ryman, which compared the effects on intensive care patients of aromatherapy using lavender, massage therapy and rest. The study concluded that rest was best. [Dunn]
I would not reject aromatherapy out of hand, however. When I have a cold and a stuffy nose, I'll use Vicks VapoRub, a mixture of camphor, menthol and eucalyptus oil. Strictly speaking, I suppose I am a practicing aromatherapist. However, when I look at what people who call themselves aromatherapists claim, I have to conclude that aromatherapy is a mostly a pseudoscientific alternative medical therapy. It is a mixture of folklore, trial and error, anecdote, testimonial, New Age spiritualism and fantasy. What aromatherapy lacks is a knack for sniffing out non-sense.
For example, one homeopathic contingent of aromatherapists follows something called "Bach's flower therapy," developed in the 1930s by British physician Edward Bach (1886-1936). Bach claimed to have psychically or intuitively discovered the healing effects of 38 wildflowers. His "discoveries" were arrived at by "inspirations." For example, while "walking through a dew-laden field early one morning, it struck him that each dewdrop, heated by the sun, would be imbued with the healing properties of the plant it lay on. This inspired him to develop a method of preparing essences using pure water....As he continued his work, his intuition became so sensitive that, by holding a flower or tasting a petal, he could immediately sense what its healing effects would be." [Who is Dr. Edward Bach?] He claimed that these wildflowers have a soul or energy with an affinity to the human soul. The flower's spiritual energy is transferable to water. Devotees drink a homeopathic concoction of flower essence, mineral water and brandy in order to get the flower soul to harmonize their own soul's energy. According to Desde San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo of Uruguay, flower remedies "do work." Bach thought that illness is the result of "a contradiction between the purposes of the soul and the personality┤s point of view." This internal war leads to negative moods and energy blocking, which causes a lack of "harmony" which leads to physical diseases. "Each of the 38 flowers of the Bach system is used to balance specific emotional pains or, in advanced stages of the lack of balance, to remit physical symptoms." [personal correspondence] I have no idea what is meant by saying that this therapy "works," but I do not see how it could be tested since its main claims are metaphysical not empirical.
Dr. Bach seems tame compared to the pioneering work of others who have followed in his petals. In California it has been discovered that the humble Forget-Me-Not is good for "increasing your awareness of karmic relationships beyond the threshold." And Mugwort is good "for awareness of dreams and conscious control of one's psychic life." [The Flower Essence Repertory by Laura Bryannan]
Of course, one should not forget that aromatherapy is also used to enhance beauty, but I'll leave that topic to others who might wish to examine the role of the placebo effect in New Age health care and cosmetology.
See related entry on alternative health practices.
further reading
The Nature of Aromatherapy by Val Lariviere, self-annointed aromatherapist
The Life And Work of Edward Bach
Dunn, C, et al, "Sensing an improvement: an experimental study to evaluate the use of aromatherapy, massage and periods of rest in an intensive care unit," Journal of Advanced Nursing, 21, 1995, pp 34-40.
Gattefossé, Rene Maurice. Formulary of perfumery and of cosmetology, a translation by A.R.I. of the original French edition of Formulaire de Parfumerie et de Cosmeto (London : L. Hill, 1952).
Gattefossé, Rene Maurice, Nouveaux parfums synthetiques (Lyon, Publications Pierre Argence (et Vidal, editeurs), 1921).
McCutcheon, Lynn. "What's That I Smell? The Claims of Aromatherapy," Skeptical Inquirer, May/June 1996.
Olsen, Kristin Gottschalk. The Encyclopedia of Alternative Health Care (New York: Pocket Books, 1990).
Raso, Jack. "Alternative" Healthcare: A Comprehensive Guide (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1994).
Ryman, Daniele. Aromatherapy : the complete guide to plant and flower essences for health and beauty (New York : Bantam Books, 1993).
Valnet, Jean. The Practice of Aromatherapy : a Classic Compendium of Plant Medicines & their Healing Properties , edited by Robert Tisserand (Rochester, Vt. : Healing Arts Press, 1990).